Discussions

1- Does the controversy between prescriptive and descriptive grammars have any implications for language teaching?

      Descriptive grammar is “the study of a language, its structure, and its rules as they are used in daily life by its speakers from all walks of life” (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990 in Hinkel, 1). It identifies how language is used and its purpose. It also attempts to understand the cultural and social background of the speaker. Prescriptive grammar, however, is the proper use of language and structure. It makes a distinction between “good grammar" and "bad grammar” (Hinkel,1). 

     Both grammars have implications for language teaching. Prescriptive grammar is taught at schools and universities. Both native speakers and ESL learners are expected to follow the grammar rules in reading and writing if they wish to pass tests or assessments. Therefore, it is imperative to teach prescriptive grammar in order to advance and excel in education and other forms of employment. Prescriptive grammar is essential in developing reading skills in education “from reading stories, novels, and poetry to biology and economics textbooks” (4). It also provides credibility. For example, the reader will automatically mistrust the content if an article contains grammar mistakes. Hinkel describes the consequences of the lack of adherence to prescriptive grammar: it “can -and often does – have social repercussions that are typically socially or opinion-based” (3). Even now, as I am writing I must make sure that I don’t make grammar mistakes as it affects my grades. 

     In everyday speech, descriptive grammar is frequently used. To use prescriptive grammar, identified chiefly with formality in this context, can be awkward. Descriptive grammar is used among family and friends in casual and social interactions. A language learner should know the distinction between descriptive (casual) and prescriptive (formal) to use them in the appropriate context. Another thing the learner should be aware of is that native speakers can overlook some rules. Hinkel states that both native and non-native speakers frequently break prescriptive grammar rules. For example, “I work with less than 20 people” breaks the rule of the non-count nouns, but it is frequently used instead of “I work with fewer than 20 people”. According to data gathered by Peter Trudgill, “only 10% of English speakers employ prescriptive grammar rules in their daily communications… on the other hand, the descriptive grammars that are employed by a large majority of language users to communicate can be perceived as inappropriate in circumstances that call for linguistic formality and formal register” (4). 

Reference: Hinkel, Eli. "Descriptive versus Prescriptive Grammar"

2- What are the differences between first and second language acquisition?

     There are several differences between L1 and L2. The first language is acquired from the natural environment, whereas the second language is a conscious learning process. Krashen describes L1 as “subconscious” and “informal, implicit learning” while L2 is “explicit, formal linguistic knowledge of language” (158). 

     First, there are biological and neurological considerations to explain the difference between L1 and L2. The Critical Period Hypothesis argues that acquiring L1 is between the ages of 2 and 12, while L2 is "due until puberty" (158). The adult’s left hemisphere loses its brain plasticity, inhibiting it from acquiring native-like skills (159). This explains why L2 adult learners cannot achieve the same fluency in pronunciation as native speakers. 

     Second, affective factors can positively or negatively influence language learning. Children do not have the same inhibitions in acquiring L1 or L2 as adults do in L2. Adult learners are more conscious and afraid of making language mistakes. Lack of motivation and negative attitude are other affective factors that can impede L2 learning. Alexander Guiora suggests that children’s language ego is “more flexible and dynamic” than when they reach puberty (159). Children’s affective filter is significantly lower than adults', hence facilitating the learning of L1 and L2. 

     Third, social factors contribute to the difference between L1 and L2. L2 learners can be taught separately or with native speakers. In non-English speaking countries, L2 is taught as a subject but not used outside the classroom. I studied ESL as a subject in Egypt. The English teacher often used Arabic to explain grammar rules and the meaning of new vocabulary. I only practiced speaking English a little in the classroom. As an adult, I sometimes prefer silence to speaking English in public for fear of making mistakes. I am still quite insecure about my speaking abilities because of the lost years of practice I experienced during childhood. 

     I agree with the studies that suggest that biological attributes inhibit the acquisition of L2. Language acquisition and retention are always easier during childhood. I learned French at the age of 10. I haven’t practiced it for over 20 years, but I can still understand it. On the other hand, when I started learning Italian at 24, I could not retain it. Perhaps this issue would be solved if I were immersed in the Italian culture. Despite the learning challenges that adults like me may face, I am more motivated to learn a language now than when I was a child. 

3- How does first language acquisition influence second language learning? 

     I can think of cognates, words that share the same etymology. As an L2 learner, I was able to identify the new word “chamber” because of its similarity to the French word “chambre.” Transferring my knowledge to the target language facilitated learning some vocabulary, particularly while learning Italian. The downside is that it led to interference or code-mixing. The Behavioristic Approach believes that L2 learning starts with features from L1. While these linguistic features strongly interfere with L2 initially, new language habits are formed (157). The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, which compares two or more systems of languages, couldn’t predict L2 mistakes. The weakness of CAH lies in its focus on one type of error: interference. 

4- What are the implications of our knowledge about the brain for language teaching? 

     According to Ipek, knowing the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 can help teachers design curricula and select suitable classroom activities. The teacher gets to learn the wants and needs of his students and use the proper teaching methods. In addition, the teacher will understand the students’ learning processes, follow their progress, and spot their weaknesses. The input should be adjusted to the student's level. The language tests are modified to the student’s capabilities.

      Knowing about the silent period in the first stage of the developmental sequence prepares the teacher to deal with it as they should encourage L2 learners to produce. The teacher would expect that inhibitions and anxiety during that period may increase the number of mistakes. Teachers should establish rapport between students and themselves and provide positive feedback and reinforcement, such as praise. During the second stage of developmental sequences, known as formulaic speech, teachers are encouraged to provide frequently used phrases. Students haven't yet been able to structure a sentence during the last developmental stage. Therefore, the omission of content words and language factors is to be expected (161). 

Reference: IPEK, H. (2009). Comparing and contrasting first and second language acquisition: Implications for language teachers. English Language Teaching, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v2n2p155

5- Choose three of these incorrect definitions and give some possible reasons why the students made the guesses they did. 

 The student knows the meanings of “stale” and “mate” separately and thinks they retain the same meaning as a compound noun. He/she probably thought it described a person in a stale relationship. In addition, like compound nouns, stalemate must be like workmate, classmate, or roommate. Therefore, a student may think it means a companion (husband or wife) is no longer interested in their relationship. 

 The student has learned that a root word ending in the suffix -logy means a field of study. As he/she cannot guess the meaning of the Greek word “dermat-,” he/she copied it as it is. He/She then added the suffix -s to refer to the unknown word in the plural form, “derms” like “germs,” instead of “dermas.” The student may have built his assumption on words like sociology (the study of society), zoology (the study of animals), climatology (the study of climate), and oceanology (the study of oceans). 

 The student has recognized that it is an adjective since it ends with the suffix -ous. He/she thinks that this adjective consists of in+ genius. The prefix in- stands for the opposite of the adjective like other prefixes such as dis- or un-. He/She has probably arrived at this conclusion having in mind words like insane, independent, or invalid. In these examples, the prefix in- means the opposite or the lack of these traits. 

6- In speech or in print, find at least three examples of new words or old words used in new ways.

Mouth The literal meaning is the lower part of the face that you use to eat and speak. The metonymous meaning is people. 

Example: I have mouths to feed. 

Crown The literal meaning is “a royal or imperial headdress or cap of sovereignty” (Merriam-Webster definition). In other words, it is an object. The metonymous meaning is a monarch, king, or queen.

 Example: This man was appointed by the Crown. 

Tweet The meaning of tweet is the chirping of birds. It is now referred to as a short message posted on X, formerly known as Twitter. It is both a verb and a noun. 

Example: I tweeted about what happened today. 

Cloud “A cloud is a visible mass of particles of condensed vapor (such as water and ice) suspended in the atmosphere of a planet (such as the Earth) or moon”. (Merriam-Webster definition) The new meaning is online data storage, such as files and photos. 

Example: I do a weekly cloud backup.

7. If you are a proficient speaker of another language (or have studied another language), describe what would be typical difficulties in pronouncing English sounds for the speakers of that language. 

     I taught Arab students from Egypt and Saudi Arabia. The linguistic systems of Arabic and English are different. Arabic is a Semitic language, while English is Germanic. Like any Egyptian student, I was taught two forms of Arabic at school: a spoken colloquial language (CA) and a written modern standard (MSA). The discrepancy between the colloquial Arabic and modern standard is significant, especially in grammar and vocabulary. Spoken Arabic is not used in writing and vice versa (social media is changing this nowadays). This somehow resembles bilingualism. Therefore, learning a new language can be considered a third language. 

     Some English consonants do not exist in Arabic, and vice versa. Although /θ/ and /ð/ exist in the written MSA, Egyptian learners never use them in spoken CA. Hence, they struggle to pronounce them correctly. They use a non-aspirated denti-alveolar /t/ in Arabic instead of the aspirated alveolar /t/ in English. Egyptian learners also roll their /r/s like Spanish learners.

 /p/ doesn’t exist. Therefore, /p/ and /b/ are often pronounced as /b/, so they can say bizza instead of pizza. 

/v/ is usually pronounced as /f/. 

/ŋ/ doesn’t exist. /ch/ and /dj/ don’t exist. 

/ch/ and /sh/ are often considered the same, but learning and distinguishing them is easy. 

The most challenging part is to have both voiced and voiceless consonants in one word, as they usually get mixed up. For instance, in words like podcast and backpack, the voiced becomes voiceless, or the voiceless becomes voiced. Consonant clusters can also be another challenge. 

8. Work on finding out five (or more ways) the sound /k/ is spelled. 

The spelling of the sound /k/ K: Kick – Work

 C: Cat – Music - Fantastic 

Q: Quebec – Queen - Iraq 

Ch: Chemistry – Archive – Scheme 

Ck: Hockey – Clock - Pack 

X: Relax – Rolex – Fox /fɒks/ 

Kh: Khaki – Sheikh (The Kh is derived from Semitic since the letter has no equivalent in English; it is written as kh and pronounced /k/)

9- Survey several people. Ask them what they think grammar means. How do their definitions match up with Weaver’s list? How do their answers match your view on grammar?

      I asked four of my friends what grammar means. One friend emphasized that the purpose of grammar is “conveying the correct meaning and avoiding ambiguity.” My second friend thought, “Grammar is a tool of the elite classes only used to create superior and inferior categories, and it’s often arbitrary.” A third friend defined grammar as “a language system mainly concerned with arranging words and building sentence structures to create different stylistic language features. This different word order often adheres to syntax and morphology rules and sometimes even reflects dialect differences.” Another friend highlighted the importance of grammar rules to “communicate effectively without confusion.” Except for my second friend, the other three mainly focused on #1 and #4 of Weaver’s list: the descriptions of syntactic structures and the functional command of sentence structure. I think #2 and #3 were implied since they are all English teachers and have emphasized the importance of grammar to their students. I would not focus on #2 either because it is known that studying grammar helps develop speaking and writing skills. I believe grammar is a set of principles that underlie the structure of a language. Grammar is a tool for analyzing and understanding language that should be taught in context. I agree with my friends and Weaver’s four meanings of grammar. 

10. Specify a grammatical principle that you believe you follow in your own speech and writing, and whose violation sounds wrong to you in the speech and writing of others. For example, some people feel very strongly about the use of “can” to ask for permission, or the use of “real” as an adverb etc.?      

     When I was growing up, McDonald’s was a growing new franchise. It came up with the advertising campaign, “I’m lovin’ it,” that was displayed everywhere. It is grammatically incorrect. Love is a non-continuous verb. Using it like that breaks the grammar rule and makes the students question this rule. It took me a while to get used to the reply “I’m good” when I asked anyone how they were. I was taught at my school in Egypt in the 90s that the answer should be, “I’m well.” I know both are accepted nowadays.

11. What does it mean to know a word? What are the best strategies in vocabulary learning and teaching based on your experience? 

     Knowing a word is not only learning its definition and pronunciation. One must also learn if it is a verb, noun, adjective, or adverb. Next, one should check how this new word is used in context and if it is derogatory, complimentary, or idiomatic. This is why checking a new word in examples helps to learn its usage. Based on my experience, reading and watching movies increased my vocabulary. As a young ESL learner in the late 90s, I used to keep a notebook and write every new word I learned from novels or movies in context, especially the idioms. Then, I would check the dictionary to see if there are other meanings, considering that the one I read is probably the most dominant. I would review the new words daily because I was motivated to improve my English. As my vocabulary kept growing, I realized that, besides grammar, learning collocations is also essential. 

     Teaching vocabulary in the traditional way, like learning new words and keeping a list, is not beneficial for retention. Learning morphology has proved valuable in research studies but is insufficient. Words must be learned in context. I find that a helpful instructional way of learning vocabulary is Isabel Beck’s categorization of vocabulary into 3 tiers. Beck suggests that students create a pre-reading vocabulary chart and select “kind of” or “don’t know at all” words. In addition, she recommends focusing on tier 2 words that appear with high frequency as well as choosing only some content-specific words related to the syllabus, which is categorized as tier 3.

12. Explain the semantic ambiguity of the following sentences by providing two or more examples that paraphrase the multiple meanings:

 Every man loves a woman: The sentence could have two meanings. It could mean that every man has at least one love in their life as an individual. It can also mean that there is one woman who has the qualities that attracts all men. 

You get half off the cost of your hotel room if you make your own bed: “Make” has different meanings depending on the context. It could mean build, create, form, prepare, or arrange, among other meanings. The second half of the sentence using “make” can be confusing. The sentence could either mean that you get half the price if you tidy the bed yourself, like putting on the bed sheets and pillows, or you get half the price if you build a bed for yourself, such as cutting and painting the wood. 

It’s his job to lose.” (said the coach about his new player): This sentence has multiple meanings. The emphatic stress would clarify the speaker’s intention and change the meaning. Since it is not clear in this sentence, it can mean any of the following: 

- The new player’s job is in jeopardy; if he continues the bad performance, he will lose it. 

- It is his responsibility. The matter is left up to him. 

-The player’s job is to lose this match as part of the plan. 

Bill wants to marry a Norwegian woman.  

- Bill wants to get married to a woman from Norway. 

- Bill wants to perform a marriage ceremony for a Norwegian woman.

13. If you are an experienced teacher, say something about your experience in teaching writing, and your best and worst writing activity. If you are new to teaching, what is your view on writing in ESL classroom? What are your hopes and fears concerning writing?   

     Writing is often ignored in language learning due to time constraints and its time-consuming nature, particularly academic writing. During my 15-year teaching experience in ESL, I realized that writing is the students’ least favorite skill to learn. They think they cannot do it. We do a lot of brainstorming and drafting in class, but when it comes to organizing and putting these ideas down on paper, they feel overwhelmed. Writing needs constant practice and feedback to eliminate these inhibitions. Sometimes, when the students see the corrections, they become more intimidated. I learned to focus on some mistakes and ignore the less serious ones. 

     My best activity is having the students choose their topic within limits. For example, when I assigned an essay about superheroes, there was much excitement. The ELL 6^th graders did a Venn Diagram comparing Batman and Flash. Then, they worked together in pairs to organize their ideas. Another good activity is picture stories. Four pictures make up a story, and the students must describe what is happening in each picture. Sometimes, they add lines to make the story more interesting. The worst activity was having the ELL 3^rd graders write about their daily routine last year, even after they had read many examples and practiced in class. It seemed challenging, especially when it was on their quiz. 

14. Based on what you have learned about language and language teaching what would be a good (English) language teaching textbook? What criteria would you expect it to meet? Have you already found such a textbook? 

     A good English language teaching textbook should interest students, include pictures and culture lessons, introduce grammar communicatively, and address all four skills equally with various activities and exercises.  I haven’t found such a book yet, so I have used supplemental material. 

     American Think level 1 has good first units but adds nothing new to the later units and becomes boring. The writing tasks in every unit are authentic and more realistic to everyday use of writing, like emails, letters, blogs…etc. Some reading comprehension is outdated, and some are cultural, but the reading level doesn’t change. It is not challenging enough and doesn’t add new information. New Interchange is good for adult learning but doesn’t offer much in writing. I find Let’s Talk good for speaking and listening.